Learning Objectives for General Biology II

Objectives for Chapters 40-44

• Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
• Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition
• Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange
• Chapter 43: The Immune System
• Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion

1. Explain how animals with complex internal organization and relatively small surface-area-to-volume ratio can have adequate surface area for exchange of materials with the environment.
2. Define tissue and organ and explain where they fall in the hierarchy of structural organization.
3. Define each of the following epithelial tissues and give an example of each: cuboidal, columnar, squamous, simple, stratified; and define basement membrane.
4. Explain the importance of fibroblasts, matrix and fibers to connective tissue; and define and give an example of each of these tissue types: loose connective, fibrous (dense) connective, adipose, cartilage, bone.
5. Distinguish between skeletal (or striated), cardiac and smooth muscle.
6. Describe several mechanisms for physiological acclimatization to new temperature ranges.
7. Define homeostasis and distinguish between positive and negative feedback.
8. Define thermoregulation and describe the four physical processes involved in heat gain or loss.
9. Distinguish between ectotherms and endotherms and describe the adaptive advantages of endothermy.
10. Discuss the five general categories of physiological and behavioral adaptations used to thermoregulate, and how these adaptations function within various groups of animals.
11. Describe the hypothalamus feedback mechanism for thermoregulation.
12. Distinguish among metabolic rate, basal metabolic rate and standard metabolic rate and describe how metabolic rate is related to size.
13. Define torpor and distinguish between hibernation and estivation.

Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition

1. Distinguish among herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
2. Name four groups of essential nutrients and their importance in an animal's diet.
3. Explain why animals need a nutritionally adequate diet; describe the effects of undernourishment; distinguish between undernourished and malnourished; and list some of the risks of obesity.
4. Describe the following feeding mechanisms and give an example of an animal that uses each: suspension or filter feeding, substrate feeding, fluid feeding and bulk feeding.
5. Define the four main stages of food processing, describe why digestion is a necessary process, and distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion.
6. Explain why intracellular digestion must take place within a food vacuole and give examples of organisms which digest their food in vacuoles.
7. Using Hydra as an example, describe how a gastrovascular cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients.
8. Describe some advantages that complete digestive tracts (alimentary canals) have over gastrovascular cavities.
9. Define peristalsis and its role in the digestive tract.
10. Describe how salivation is controlled, list the functions of saliva, and describe the role of salivary amylase in digestion.
11. Describe the function of stomach acid and pepsin and name the cells that produce them; and explain why the stomach does not normally digest itself.
12. Explain how chyme is moved through the small intestine, and the roles of pancreatic amylases, trypsin, and lipase.
13. Explain the function of bile; describe where it is produced and stored; and describe its composition.
14. Explain where most nutrient absorption occurs, and why the villi and microvilli are important in the small intestine.
15. Explain the function of the hepatic portal vein.
16. Explain where in the digestive tract most water reabsorption occurs.
17. Describe the function of the intestinal flora.
18. Describe dental and stomach/intestinal adaptations to diet among vertebrates.

Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

1. Explain why invertebrates with a gastrovascular cavity do not need a circulatory system for internal transport.
2. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems.
3. List the components of a vertebrate cardiovascular system; compare the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, and mammals; distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each; and explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit.
4. Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listing all of the structures it passes en route.
5. List the four heart valves and their location, and explain their function; define heart murmur and explain its cause.
6. Distinguish between systole and diastole, and define heart rate.
7. Define cardiac output and explain how it is affected by changes in heart rate or stroke volume.
8. Define sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker; describe the origin and pathway of the electrical impulse through the human heart, and explain how the pace of the SA node is controlled.
9. Compare the structural differences of arteries and veins and relate them to function.
10. Describe how capillary structure differs from other vessels and how this relates to capillary function.
11. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured.
12. Describe the composition of lymph; explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system and also helps against infection.
13. List the components of blood and describe a function for each.
14. Distinguish between atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis, and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs); list the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease; and explain what happens in a heart attack, stroke and hypertension.
15. Distinguish between a respiratory medium and respiratory surface, and state which animals use moist outer skin, gills, tracheae and lungs as respiratory organs.
16. Describe countercurrent exchange in fish gills and explain why it is so efficient.
17. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures along the way.
18. Define the following lung volumes and give a normal range of capacities: tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
19. Explain how air enters mammalian lungs and how breathing is controlled.
20. Describe the structure of hemoglobin and state how many oxygen molecules a hemoglobin molecule can carry; and state the main form in which carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs.
21. Describe some adaptations of pronghorn antelope and diving mammals.

Chapter 43: The Immune System

1. Explain what is meant by innate immunity and explain how this differs from acquired immunity.
2. Explain how the barrier defense of the skin is reinforced by defenses such as phagocytic cells and antimicrobial proteins and descrobe how interferons fight viral infections.
3. Describe the inflammatory response, including how it is triggered and the chemical signals that are involved.
4. Outline the development of T and B lymphocytes and describe where they mature.
5. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection; distinguish between the primary and secondary immune response;and describe the cellular basis for immunological memory and for self-tolerance.
6. Design a flow chart describing the sequence of events which follows the interaction between antigen-presenting macrophages and helper T-cells, including both cell-mediated and humoral immunity.
7. Describe how cytotoxic T cells recognize and kill their targets.
8. Diagram and label the structure of an antibody; explain how this structure allows antibodies to recognize and bind to antigens, and assist in the elimination of antigens; distinguish between variable and constant regions of an antibody molecule; and define epitope.
9. Describe the following mechanisms of humoral immunity: neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, and the complement system.
10. Distinguish between active and passive immunity, and between humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
11. Describe how ABO blood groups are related to A and B antigens.
12. Describe why transplanted tissue is rejected; list some known autoimmune disorders; describe an allergic reaction including the role of IgE, mast cells, and histamine; recall the infectious agent that causes AIDS and how it weakens the immune system.

Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion

1. Recall the definition of osmosis and define osmolarity; distinguish between osmoregulators and osmoconformers.
2. Discuss the problems that marine, freshwater and terrestrial organisms face in maintaining homeostasis and explain what osmoregulatory adaptations serve as solutions to these problems.
3. Explain the correlation between the form of nitrogenous waste (ammonia, urea, or uric acid) produced by an organism and the organism's habitat.
4. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each structure in the mammalian excretory system.
5. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each part of the nephron.
6. Describe and show the relationship among the processes of filtration, secretion, and reabsorption.
7. Explain how the loop of Henle enhances water conservation in the kidney.
8. Describe the mechanisms involved in the hormonal regulation of the kidney.