Learning Objectives for General Biology II

Objectives for Chapters 45-51

• Chapter 45: Hornomes and the Endocrine System
• Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction
• Chapter 47: Animal Development
• Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling
• Chapter 49: Nervous Systems
• Chapter 50: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
• Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

1. Define hormone and compare the response times of the two major systems of internal communication: the nervous system and the endocrine system.
2. Describe the relationship among endocrine system components: hormones, endocrine glands, target cells, and target cell receptors.
3. Explain how to account for specificity in target cell response to hormonal signals.
4. Describe the differences in cellular response pathways for water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones.
5. State the functions of nitric oxide, growth factors, and prostaglandins in paracrine signaling.
6. Distinguish between the function of alpha and beta cells of the pancreas and explain how insulin and glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism.
7. Describe the location of the hypothalamus and its relationship to the pituitary gland.
8. Describe the location and list the hormones and their functions for the following endocrine glands: posterior pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, and pineal.
9. Define tropic hormone and describe the functions of tropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary.
10. List the three categories of gonadal sex hormones and their functions; and explain how estrogen and androgen synthesis are controlled.

Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction

1. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction, including the relative advantages of each method.
2. Define fission, budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis, and give examples of animals that use them.
3. Explain what is meant by hermaphroditism and provide examples of animals showing this, as well as instances of sex reversal.
4. Describe the differences between external and internal fertilization with respect to the numbers and survival rates of gametes.
5. List the structures and their functions of the male and female human reproductive systems.
6. Describe the three significant ways in which spermatogenesis and oogenesis differ.
7. Distinguish between menstrual and estrous cycles.
8. Describe in detail the stages and interrelationships between the menstrual (uterine) and ovarian cycles, including what happens during each stage and the role of LH, FSH, estrogens, and progesterone in the cycles.
9. Describe the process of human gestation, including cleavage, implantation in the endometrium, organogenesis, what happens during each trimester, and the role of HCG.
10. List several methods of contraception, how they work, and their relative effectiveness.

Chapter 47: Animal Development

1. Describe the acrosomal reaction and explain how it ensures that sperm fertilize eggs of the same species; and describe the cortical reaction.
2. Explain how the acrosomal and cortical reactions function sequentially to block polyspermy.
3. Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg.
4. Explain the importance of embryo polarity during cleavage.
5. Describe the process of gastrulation and explain its importance.
6. List adult structures derived from each of the primary tissue layers during organogenesis.
7. Using diagrams, identify the various stages of embryonic development of an amphibian (such as a frog embryo), focusing especially on development of the notochord, neural crest and somites.
8. List and explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in bird and reptile eggs.
9. Compare and contrast development in birds and in mammals.
10. Explain the relationships among embryo polarity, cytoplasmic determinants and development.
11. Describe how cell extension, contraction, and adhesion are involved in shaping the embryo.
12. Explain how interactions among the three primary tissue layers influence organogenesis.
13. Describe the importance of cell location and orientation along the three body axes with respect to polarity in the embryo, morphogenetic movements, and pattern formation.
14. Explain how positional cues influence pattern formation.

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

1. Distinguish among sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons, and between central and peripheral nervous systems.
2. List and describe the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each; and describe the function and location of glia.
3. Explain what a resting potential is, and describe how a resting potential is maintained within a neuron.
4. Describe the characteristics of an action potential; explain the role membrane permeability changes and voltage-gated ion channels play in the generation of an action potential; explain how an action potential is generated along a neuron; and state several factors that influence the speed of propagation along the axon.
5. Define depolarization, hyperpolarization and refractory period.
6. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential; and explain how a neuron integrates incoming information, including a description of summation.
7. Describe the role of neurotransmitters and list some neurotransmitters.
8. Describe two mechanisms by which a neurotransmitter affects the postsynaptic cell.

Chapter 49: Nervous Systems

1. Explain the difference between nerve nets, central nervous system, and peripheral nervous system.
2. Outline the divisions of the vertebrate nervous system; distinguish the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system; and list the major components of the central nervous system.
3. Distinguish between sensory (afferent) nerves and motor (efferent) nerves, and between white matter and gray matter.
4. From a diagram, identify and describe the functions of these major structures of the human brain: brainstem (medulla oblongata and pons), cerebellum, diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), cerebrum, and corpus callosum.
5. Explain what is meant by lateralization of brain function.
6. Describe the parts of the brain associated with speech, language and emotions.
7. Distinguish between short-term and long-term memory.

Chapter 50: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

1. Describe the four basic functions of sensory pathways (reception, transduction, transmission, perception), and explain what is meant by amplification and sensory adaptation.
2. List the five types of sensory receptors and describe the energy stimulus of each.
3. Compare the hearing and equilibrium systems found in non-mammalian vertebrates, and describe the structure and function of statocysts.
4. For the mammalian ear, identify and give the function of the outer ear, tympanic membrane, malleus, incus, stapes, Eustachian tube, cochlea, semicircular canals and organ of Corti; explain how the ear functions as a hearing organ, and to maintain balance and equilibrium.
5. Explain the functions of chemoreceptors involved with taste and smell.
6. Compare and contrast the structure and processing of light in eye cups of planaria, compound eyes of insects, and single-lens eyes of mollusks.
7. For the vertebrate eye, identify and give the function of the sclera, conjuctiva, cornea, iris, retina, lens, fovea, aqueous humor and vitreous humor; describe how rod cells and cone cells function; and explain how retinal signals following a horizontal pathway can enhance visual integration.
8. Using a diagram, identify the basic components of skeletal muscle.
9. Explain how muscles contract according to the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction including the roles of actin, myosin, ATP, tropomyosin, troponin complex, Ca++ and the sarcoplasmic reticulum; define tetanus and motor unit; and describe mechanisms responsible for graded contraction of muscles.
10. Explain the adaptive advantage of possessing both slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers.
11. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
12. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and why they are not found in large, terrestrial organisms; and explain how the structure of an arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility.
13. List the major components of the axial and appendicular portions of human skeleton.
14. Describe the advantages and disadvantages to locomotion in water, on land, and in the air.

Chapter 51: Behavioral Biology

1. Describe the evolutionary basis for behavioral ecology.
2. Explain the difference between innate and learned behaviors, and the difference between ultimate and proximate causations for behavior.
3. Explain the nature versus nurture controversy.
4. Describe a fixed-action pattern and a sign stimulus.
5. Explain the effect of maturation on behavioral improvement.
6. Define habituation, associative learning, and insight learning.
7. Discuss imprinting, imprinting stimulus, and critical period.
8. Distinguish among classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
9. Describe two hypotheses for the evolution of play behavior.
10. Explain how exogenous and endogenous cues may influence rythmic behaviors.
11. Describe and define kinesis, taxis, and migration; and explain the differences among piloting, orientation and navigation.
12. Compare generalist and specialist foraging strategies; explain how a search image is adaptive; and describe optimal foraging strategies in terms of energetics and prey densities.
13. Describe agonistic behavior; explain what is meant by ritual behavior and describe the evolutionary advantage of ritual behavior.
14. Describe a dominance hierarchy and explain the advantages to individuals in the hierarchy; and explain how dominance hierarchies and territories may stabilize population densities.
15. Describe the advantages of courtship and explain how ritualized courtships may have evolved.
16. Define parental investment; discuss the ultimate bases for mate selection; compare and contrast the three main mating systems; describe the differences between polyandry and polygyny, and describe how the needs of the young and how the certainty of paternity influence the development of mating systems.
17. Describe the various modes of communication and relate an animal's mode of communication to its way of life.
18. Discuss why altruistic behavior might evolve.
19. Define inclusive fitness, kin selection, and reciprocal altruism.
20. Describe the premise of sociobiology.